Birmingham Airport

Like any other airport, Birmingham International has enough competitors that want their own share of its market. The theory is the bigger the better, and better = more profit. †¦ This essay has been marked by one of our great teachers. You can †¦ www. markedbyteachers. com/gcse/business-studies/birmingham†¦ – Birmingham-Shuttlesworth International Airport at Sunset: Feb. 6, 2013 | al. com 1 of 8 Link to this photo | Comments about this photo essay The downtown skyline is shown as a business jet takes off at sunset from the Birmingham-Shuttlesworth International Airport in Birmingham, Ala. Wednesday, Feb. 6, 2013. (Mark †¦ photos. al. com/alcom_photo_essay/2013/02/birmingham-shuttlesworth†¦ – GCSE Birmingham International Airport – Location Coursework, Essay and Homework Help from Marked By Teachers. com †¦ Business Studies Case Studies Birmingham International Airport – Location †¦ This essay has been marked by one of our great teachers. You can read the full teachers notes when you †¦ www. markedbyteachers. com/gcse/business-studies/birmingham†¦ Birmingham-Shuttlesworth International Airport expansion | al. com BIRMINGHAM, Alabama–The $201 million expansion of the Birmingham-Shuttlesworth International Airport in progressing on schedule. These are new photos from inside Concourse †¦ 10 of 25 Link to this photo | Comments about this photo essay †¦ photos. al. com/alcom_photo_essay/2013/02/birmingham-shuttlesworth†¦ – Free Essays on Essay Atlanta International Airport 1 through 30 Quick Analysis Of The Denver International Airport Conspiracy essay.If EssayDepot does not allow images to be on display then I will upload a PDF version of this document †¦ CASE STUDY 1 : BIRMINGHAM INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT 1 †¦ www. essaydepot. com/documents/essay-atlanta-international-airport/1 – Operations Strategy Free Research Papers 61 – 90 Join Us Essay Top ics Custom Term Papers Contact Top Camps Help †¦ NBS-2P2Y Operations Strategy and Management Seminar 1 Birmingham International Airport Case Study If you stand in the viewing gallery at Birmingham International†¦ ww. papercamp. com/group/operations-strategy/page-60 – [PDF] BIRMINGHAM? SHUTTLESWORTH INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT SPRING Adobe PDF BIRMINGHAM? SHUTTLESWORTH INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT SPRING SPRING Birmingham Airport Authority Board of Directors Front: Gaynell Hendricks, Chairwoman, Back row (left to right): Jeaniece Allen †¦ was the poster and essay topic †¦ www. flybirmingham. com/newsletter/On%20Course%20Spring%202013†¦ – Birmingham Airport Like any other airport, Birmingham International has enough competitors that want their own share of its market. The theory is the bigger the better, and better = more profit. †¦ This essay has been marked by one of our great teachers. You can †¦ www. markedbyteachers. com/gcse/business-studies/birmingham†¦ – Birmingham-Shuttlesworth International Airport at Sunset: Feb. 6, 2013 | al. com 1 of 8 Link to this photo | Comments about this photo essay The downtown skyline is shown as a business jet takes off at sunset from the Birmingham-Shuttlesworth International Airport in Birmingham, Ala. Wednesday, Feb. 6, 2013. (Mark †¦ photos. al. com/alcom_photo_essay/2013/02/birmingham-shuttlesworth†¦ – GCSE Birmingham International Airport – Location Coursework, Essay and Homework Help from Marked By Teachers. com †¦ Business Studies Case Studies Birmingham International Airport – Location †¦ This essay has been marked by one of our great teachers. You can read the full teachers notes when you †¦ www. markedbyteachers. com/gcse/business-studies/birmingham†¦ Birmingham-Shuttlesworth International Airport expansion | al. com BIRMINGHAM, Alabama–The $201 million expansion of the Birmingham-Shuttlesworth International Airport in progressing on schedule. These are new photos from inside Concourse †¦ 10 of 25 Link to this photo | Comments about this photo essay †¦ photos. al. com/alcom_photo_essay/2013/02/birmingham-shuttlesworth†¦ – Free Essays on Essay Atlanta International Airport 1 through 30 Quick Analysis Of The Denver International Airport Conspiracy essay.If EssayDepot does not allow images to be on display then I will upload a PDF version of this document †¦ CASE STUDY 1 : BIRMINGHAM INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT 1 †¦ www. essaydepot. com/documents/essay-atlanta-international-airport/1 – Operations Strategy Free Research Papers 61 – 90 Join Us Essay Top ics Custom Term Papers Contact Top Camps Help †¦ NBS-2P2Y Operations Strategy and Management Seminar 1 Birmingham International Airport Case Study If you stand in the viewing gallery at Birmingham International†¦ ww. papercamp. com/group/operations-strategy/page-60 – [PDF] BIRMINGHAM? SHUTTLESWORTH INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT SPRING Adobe PDF BIRMINGHAM? SHUTTLESWORTH INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT SPRING SPRING Birmingham Airport Authority Board of Directors Front: Gaynell Hendricks, Chairwoman, Back row (left to right): Jeaniece Allen †¦ was the poster and essay topic †¦ www. flybirmingham. com/newsletter/On%20Course%20Spring%202013†¦ –

The Gravity Model

Literature review Many researches and theories have been written according to the trade flows between two different zones (EU and BRICS countries). A researcher Cheney in 2008 reported that â€Å"The gravity model† is a very tangible method for empirical trade analysis that explains bilateral trade is described in trade flows in terms of the size of the trading partners (by GDPs), the distance among these countries (long distance creates additional cost on trade) and several other geographical specifications or policy aspects of any bilateral trade relationship. As these factors affect the value of trade between countries, they also affect the duration of these trade flows Prusa in 2006. Thus, we include the GDP of the destination country, the distance (in km) between Brussel, Berlin and the importer country's capital city, and various variables indicating contiguity (i.e. controlling for potential border effects), the existence of bilateral and multilateral trade agreements, EU membership of the destination market and a common language between Belgium, Germany and its trading partner (Brazil, Russian Federation, India, China and South Africa). We also control for the initial value of the export relationship in a destination to account for the initial level of confidence the trading partners originally had in the sustainability of this relationship Brenton in 2010 and to check the presented findings by Besede in 2008 that trade relations starting large last longer. The measurement of trade policy is not often changed even when the definition of trade policy is restricted to traditional tariff and non-tariff barriers to international trade.The TRAINS database of the United Nations' or the WITS database of the World Bank's are systematically exist from 1989. In totally, we can observe that measures of tariffs aremore available than measures of non-tariff barriers. (Anderson and Wincoop 2004). In some situations, there are different types of trade policy measurements: As price – we can show ad-valorem tariffs which are easy to calculate and most comparable across industries and time because they create barrier in international trade and it influences directly to the product's price. Furthermore, trade instruments such of that specific tariffs which are applied as a per-unit on imported goods. By analyzing the trade policy measurement across countries, industries and time that can effect inference about the effect of trade policies in cross-country and multi-industry researches (Harrigan and Barrow in 2009). A recent study by scholars from the  University of Kentucky College of Agriculture, Food and Environment, UK (2017) started to analyze the price of different type of chocolates in terms of consumers wants to purchase them. The research showed that online traders do not put higher cost for mixed chocolate than plain chocolate. Moreover, consumers agree to pay a premium for ordinary chocolate bars which are full of proteins and they will prefer to pay a premium for chocolate in comparison to milk chocolate according to dark chocolate's important benefits. Another interesting fact is that to produce a chocolate labeled in developing countries is less cost under the fair trade as opposed to other types of chocolate. Another author, Tracey Massey, president of Mars Chocolate (2016) stressed that for increasing our profit we have to apply newer innovation in chocolate products because of consumers' preferences. Thus, consumers love to taste new mixed products. In another tangible point, we refer to another scholar, Mr. Nielson (2016) corresponding to pricing and sales Nielson presented that chocolate as main product still covers most industry sales (88%) in the market. Hence, people buy chocolate much more during special ceremonies and holidays. In a light of another study of Mayer, which was presented in 2014, he noted that we have evaluate the level of international competition Belgian and German chocolate exporters face on each market. Firstly, we appreciate this observed level by taking into account the amount of chocolate imports from other countries (with the exception of Belgium and Germany). International competition can influence to the prolongation of the chocolate export in two levels. On the first level, countries importing a vast amount of chocolate may also import more chocolate from Belgium and Germany because of a strong preference for chocolate. On the second level, if international competition is tougher, Belgian and German exporters may see it more difficult to compete with other exporters in the market. Another important study came in 2011 by Lulia Monica from the Romanian Academy, Institute of World Economy. According to this paper, it can be seen that the relations between BRICS countries and these two developed countries is the key for the modernization on trade partnership. Thus, in recent decade the chocolate trade between both two areas have increased significantly, emphasizing the great evolution of Chinese and Russian shares on the market of Europe. In 2009, China became the third main exporter for the European market, and the main import country for Europe. After China, Russia came on the fourth place as exporting country, India the 8th and Brazil the twelfth. When it comes to the imports: China is the first import destination for Europe, Russia is the 3rd , Brazil the 9th and India the10th. As a result, this paper indicates that Belgium and Germany as EU countries is the most important trade partner for BRICS countries, both in the sector of exports and imports. Therefore, the points of this enquiry directed to analyze chocolate market share of the given countries above, the situation trade among these countries, to touch some parameters that directly affect the development of the chocolate market and to take into account trade factors in the different countries, how tariffs applied influence the level of export to BRICS countries.

Captive Killer Whales

Captive Killer Whales In captivity, many orcas suffer from poor physical and mental health. In the wild, they can easily travel 50 to 100 miles a day. However, in captivity, a typical tank is only twice their size, forcing the animals to swim in small circles or float aimlessly. â€Å"The stress of captivity can drive orcas and other marine mammals to display neurotic behaviors that, understandably enough, can lead to tragic consequences†, says Elliot Katz, president of In Defense of Animals, an animal welfare advocacy group. These results can include premature death, depression, and injury to trainers. â€Å"Science has confirmed that in captivity, dolphins and whales suffer from high mortality rates, low breeding success and may endure physical and psychological disorders. There is no justification for the capture, trade, and display of these wild animals†, according to Daniel Turner of the Born Free Foundation, another organization dedicated to conservation and animal welfare. In the wild, killer whales typically travel in pods of between five and 30. Sometimes pods combine to form a group of 100 orcas with a complex social hierarchy led by females. Researchers believe that killer whales possess an advanced system of communication, with different dialects. In captivity, killer whales are often isolated, except during shows and training. They are unable to communicate with each other or form social relationships as they would in the wild. Another immoral practice is the mass breeding of these whales. They are being overbred, crossbred, and even inbred. Tilikum, the largest orca in captivity, is the chief sperm source of SeaWorld, and activists believe his value as a stud is the main reason why SeaWorld will not release him back into the wild. Often breeding methods pose safety conditions and threaten the animals health. In the wild, orcas choose their own mates, and the families stay together for life. To communicate, navigate, and hunt for food, orcas rely on echolocation, which is the process of emitting sound and then interpreting the vibrations. The sound waves bounce off objects and travel back, telling the orca what is around it. In captivity, tanks are made of solid concrete, which causes sound waves to bounce off the walls, making it impossible for orcas to locate food or navigate using echolocation. Many captive killer whales die prematurely, with the average life at about ten years. In the wild, they live between 50 and 80 years. The first orca held in captivity lasted one day; she swam around her enclosure at high speeds, ramming into the sides of her tank. Killer whales in captivity pose a danger to trainers, with four documented deaths and a long list of attacks. The most recent occurred in 2010, when Tilikum allegedly grabbed his trainer, Dawn Bran ¬cheau, by her hair and dragged her underwater. Tilikum, whose stage name is Shamu at SeaWorld Orlando, weighs 12,000 p ounds, and Bran ¬cheau was one of their most experienced trainers. â€Å"When these animals are taken into captivity, they can  ¬become very hostile, depressed, and even suicidal†, says Howard Garrett, director of the nonprofit Orca Network. Tragically, Tilikum had also been involved in an earlier death of a trainer, in 1991, when Keltie Lee Byrne accidentally fell into the tank. A homicide investigation showed that Tilikum and two other orcas prevented Byrne from getting out of the pool, causing her to drown. After Brancheaus death, Tilikum was banned from public appearances. However, just 13 months later, he rejoined the cast of Believe, SeaWorld’s most popular dolphin and whale show. In 2009, trainer Alexis Martinez, was killed by Keto, a 14-year-old male orca, during a training session. Keto held Alexis underwater. His autopsy revealed a violent death, with numerous scrapes, bruises, fractures, and several teeth marks. Although his immediate cause of death was drowning, the report states that the fundamental cause was â€Å"mechanical asphyxiation due to compression and crushing of the thoracic abdomen with injuries to the vital organs†. In other words, Keto violently crushed his trainer. Non-fatal attacks by captive killer whales on humans have also occurred. In 1984 at SeaWorld California, two killer whales grabbed the legs of their trainer, Bud Krames, and pinned him against a glass wall during a show. Krames eventually left his job – and he isn’t the only trainer working with orcas to do so; in one year, a total of 35 orca trainers left their jobs. There have been over 100 documented attacks in captivity, but no human deaths from orcas have been recorded in the wild. Only one attack has been documented involving a killer whale in the wild, but this was probably due to mistaken identity, since the victim was surfing in an area highly populated with seals, orcas natural food source. These cases prove that unnatural living conditions in captivity are the most likely cause of aggressive behavior and attacks on humans. It is unfair and immoral to profit from the mistreatment of animals. Killer whales are the main attraction at many marine parks and, without them, park attendance would drop drastically. Therefore, these facilities want to keep attendance levels high by offering shows that provide entertainment and allow guests to view the animals up close. Orcas are suffering major physical and mental problems due to their captivity, such as broken teeth from gnawing on steel gates, dorsal fin collapsing from lack of exercise, and signs of depression. However, the shows go on.

All women's week Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

All women's week - Assignment Example Yes, I would not have read Harry Potter Part 6 recently had it not been for this assignment. The reason is that I have read it few years ago, though I liked Harry Potter series so much that I purchased the entire volume. My favorite forms of popular culture are music and fashion. It cannot be generalized for all forms of popular culture that they maintain or resist systems of inequality and privilege. Certain forms do maintain them while others resist them. One can find disparity in these aspects even within the same form of popular culture. For example, A&F is known to maintain racial prejudices and inequality as the brand prefers recruiting predominantly white models and customer services’ agents to display its accessories and garments through. On the other hand, most contemporary music is promoting racial equality and harmony. Most latest music videos include actors of a variety of

Business Foundation Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Business Foundation Management - Assignment Example It jacked up it prices by 60% because of the deal they made with Hollywood (Sandoval 1). The deal was that Netflix was to pay a specific amount of money for every user per month for any user who had the right of connecting to the Hollywood content. This was regardless of whether they Netflix consumers viewed that content or not. Therefore, Netflix could not afford the luxury of paying for the digital content for individuals who were not watching it. The organisation argued that it was not cost of living increase and nor was it inflation. Regardless of the fact the analysts argued that the new hike in prices by Netflix was because of the new studio contracts, Netflix maintained the contracts had nothing to do with it. It also maintained that neither was it the high costs of doing business had caused it to hike the prices. In the Netflix’s blog, they say that when they launched their $7.99 unlimited streaming plan, whereby DVDs by mail were treated as a two dollar adds on to their unlimited streaming plan (Sandoval 1). In that previous year, the management had not anticipated offering DVD-only plans. Thereafter, they realised that there was still a very large continuing demand for DVDS. This was from both their existing member and the non-members. They continue to argue that, given the long life they thought that DVDs by mail were going to have, treating DVDs a two dollar add on their unlimited streaming plan was neither making great financial sense not satisfies the individuals who just want DVDs. Netflix mana gement argued that creating an unlimited DVDs by mail plan whereby it did not include streaming at their normal prices, which were very low, $7.99, it did not make any sense (Sandoval 1). In addition, they stated that it would not ensure a long life for their DVDS by mail offering. The most argument that comes regarding this decision was that the price hike was mostly to force the millions of Netflix’s members and non-members to go for

Business Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Business Ethics - Essay Example Business ethics requires the view of all business activities through the moral values lens to determine their acceptability in the society. For smooth business operations, all business actors must understand various issues such as the personal aspects of business including family, sex, marriage and friendship, individual rights, and the moral values ascribed by society within which the business operate. This paper entails discussion of chapters covered between week 4 and 8 and identification of different sources of information with information relevant to the readings. â€Å"It’s Not My Problem†: The Concept of Responsibility (Chapter 8) The concept of responsibility is applied in business in different ways in which every actor in the business world has a role to play. The different forms of responsibilities in the business field include consumer responsibility, corporate responsibility and shareholder responsibility. The view of these responsibilities through the busin ess ethics lens converts them into moral responsibilities and prima facie obligations. In this case, all business actors are obliged to ensure fulfillment of such responsibilities in orders for the business undertakings to have constructive ends or positive impact on the society. Lange and Washburn (2012) have explored the meaning irresponsible behavior in the business world to divert attention from what corporate social responsibility implies, to what business actors do that is against the expectation of responsible behavior. The information covered by the two authors closely relates to information covered in this chapter in which much emphasis has been put on the different responsibilities and the misunderstanding of the responsibility concept in business. According to Lange and Washburn (2012), business responsibility is deeply rooted in the external expectations and the perception of the people experiencing the business activities. The survival and success of a business organiza tion or venture greatly depends on the widespread external perception as to whether the organization acts in socially responsible manner and the ability to meet external expectations. Nevertheless, it is important to understand that the responsibility concept in business does not imply going against self-interests in the business venture but the need to strike a balance between self-interests and societal interests. The greatest dilemma in business ethics revolves around the conflict of responsibilities, where individual’s power may be limited by external expectations or responsibilities. Social Responsibility and the Stakeholder (Chapter 9) Social responsibility in the business world refers to the different roles that businesses and actors in the business world have by virtue of operating within the society. The concept of corporate social responsibility encompasses the social concerns of stakeholders and the economic interests of business owners and shareholders. The corpor ate world and the society directly depend on each other, where the society cannot function in absence of economic and social roles of corporations while at the same time corporations cannot exist without the society. The stakeholder approach in business social responsibilities ensures that business owners commit to serve broader interests, in addition to the business economic and

International operation and competition study of GlaxoSmithKline plc Essay

International operation and competition study of GlaxoSmithKline plc - Essay Example It is critical to increase the accessibility of the different pharmaceuticals and medicinal drugs manufactured by various countries across the world. Therefore, the international marketing processes followed by the companies in the global pharmaceutical industry and the analysis of the pharmaceutical industry are important aspects of the pharmaceutical industry landscape across the globe. The commercial success of the pharmaceutical company depends on reaching more number of customers and ensuring innovation of new medicines and other pharmaceuticals. Therefore the international marketing process of this giant company in the pharmaceutical industry is an interesting and challenging topic for studying. The aim of the study is to evaluate and assess the competitive and operating situations of GlaxoSmithKline plc. This study includes identifying and analysing the various challenges faced by the pharmaceutical company in its international marketing and operational processes. The different types of barriers and opportunities in the external environment of the company and the potentials and capabilities of the company are studied. Also, the various strategies followed by GlaxoSmithKline plc. to increase a diversified business across the world and to maintain sustainable competitive advantage in the changing global scenario are identified and analysed. The report is prepared with the aim to understand the international competitiveness and the global challenges and opportunities in the marketing processes of GlaxoSmithKline plc. Therefore the analysis of the macro environmental factors and the competition levels is done by the use of various popular tools like Michael Porter’s five forces, PESTEL analysis and Porter’s Generic Strategy. These tools have been implemented to understand the global competitive levels in the pharmaceutical industry and the impacts of these factors

Leadership, Effective Leaders Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Leadership, Effective Leaders - Essay Example It is importnt tht competing demnds nd pproches not prlyze mngers but insted provide cumultive nd integrtive improvements to ledership effectiveness. In view of bove, current pper provides impiricl pproch towrd the concpet of ledership. Bsing on the book of Chrles Mnz nd Henry Sims, The New SuperLedership, where the principl of self-ledership is peoneered, present discussion covers theorieticl review nd prcticl impliction of types of ledership. It is the im of this pper to present new content nd exmples designed to help leders develop the kind of utonomous, quick-recting workforce necessry to thrive in these turbulent times. I first introduce the theory of ledership styles. Through the discussion of two types of ledrship, I grdully comme to the discussion of effective ledership techniques nd end up with personl model of ledership. Using the exmples of two leders this pper is gret reflection of efficient nd inefficient pproch to ledership. Drwing on contemporry exmples nd profiles, mny from the high-tech nd informtion sectors, Mnz nd Sims shtter the myth of the trditionl, ggrndized versions of "heroic" ledership. They show tht leder truly becomes successful by turning followers into extrordinry self-leders-pillrs of strength tht will support the orgniztion t every level. They detil series of ction-oriented steps through which the SuperLeder provides n opportunity for followers to express nd develop their own ledership skills-nd in the process become highly motivted, dynmic contributors. The typology of ledershi introduced by uthors describes four brod ledership rchetypes: strongmn, trnsctor, visionry hero, nd SuperLeder. The strongmn relies on uthority nd coercion to mke subordintes perform the tsks. Coercion, s mens of influencing the behvior of others, depends upon the expecttion of specified positive or negtive consequences. Coercive power requires tht the expecttion of consequences be reproduced consistently. The continued ppliction of these consequences is usully enough to ensure tht others' behvior will continue to be influenced. Coercion is esy to estblish but costly to mintin since the expecttions of others must be met if their behvior is going to be influenced beyond the previous instnce. uthority is the opposite: it is difficult to estblish but once in plce it is highly effective mens of influencing behvior since specific consequences, nd the inculction of the expecttion of them, re not required. While often considered relic of pst mngeril prctice, mny contemporry leders still employ this uthoritrin style. The trnsctor uses rewrds nd snctions to motivte employees. Positive reinforcement not only shpes behvior but lso teches nd in the process enhnces personl self-imge s Chrles Mnz nd Henry Sims note, the wy the reinforcement is crried out is more importnt thn the mount. First, it ought to be specific, incorporting s much informtion content s possible. Second, the reinforcement should hve immedicy. Third, the system of feedbck mechnisms should tke ccount of chievbility. Compnies should rewrd smll wins. Good news swpping is common in the excellent compnies. The fourth chrcteristic is tht fir mount of the feedbck comes in the form of intngible but meningful ttention from top mngement. The third type, visionry hero, uses inspirtion nd vision to motivte employees. SuperLeders ccomplish this by encourging individuls to set their own gols, monitor

ECO MOD 2 CA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

ECO MOD 2 CA - Essay Example This was mainly due to the impairment charges of  £973mn related to ex-Armor Holdings business. BAE: The net operating cash flow has a mixed trend declining by 17.9% in 2008 and then growing by 9.1% in 2009. This is due to the company facing difficulties in generating net income from its operations. Upon examination of note 12 to balance sheet for the year ended 2009 it could be suggested that the machinery and other equipment recorded at historical cost of CHF677.9mn and accumulated depreciation is CHF477.7mn may not be reflective of the current market values as the depreciation amount is quite high that suggests long history of these equipments in use. Similar, reasoning could be made for other non-current assets that have a net book value of CHF53.4mn as compared to their historical value of CHF223.2mn (Sulzer 2009). Balance sheet of year ended 2009 reflects that the company has plant, rental machines and other property at historical cost of $39,596 with accumulated depreciation of $25,431. Under Note H to consolidated financial statement details of assets suggest that the company has land, building and other equipment however they are not distinguished on the basis of their remaining useful lives and no other details are provided (IBM 2009). Accumulated depreciation reflects 64% of the historical value that implies that these assets are quite old but the current values of replacement assets surely going to be higher than these values. From the note 12 it is clear that the accumulated depreciation is more than 50% for plant and machinery and aircraft. This implies that the remaining useful life of these assets is low and their net book values may not reflect the true value of these assets in their book. The depreciation method used for plant and machinery is straight line method that spreads the economic value over 3 to 5 years which means that the accumulated depreciation value implies high number of years

National Health Service - United Kingdom Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

National Health Service - United Kingdom - Essay Example The approach of the NHS is patient centric. The details of services carried out by the NHS are schematically given in a diagram provided on the web site of the organisation which at Figure 1. The NHS has a three tiered strategic structure. Thus at Tier 1 is the apex body of the Department of Health, UK which provides funding, directional support and other related functions. The Strategic Health Authorities are designed to manage and improve local services, while the Primary Care Trusts or PCTs assess local needs and organise care. The provision of health care has been divided into two phases. Phase 1 is providing primary care which comprises of services as that of GP Practices, Dentists, Opticians and pharmacists and so on. NHS Direct is also a part of Primay Care. Secondary Care caters for emergency and urgent care and is provided by various trusts such as the ambulance trust, NHS trust, mental care trust and care trusts. A detailed survey of the NHS is being carried out as per succeeding paragraphs to provide a better insight into its functioning and suitability for adoption of the suggested model of e governance. NHS is said to be a patient centric organization, thus patients are provided with dedicated care. However there is a general complaint that this is dependent on the area in which they live, as a result those in relatively far flung areas receive much less support than those located centrally near prominent places. Attempts are also being made for greater involvement of patients by encouraging them to make their own choices, reorganizing them as partners in the system to support health professionals and facilitate decision making through forums and foundation trusts. This has increased in greater outreach to patients.2 Ensuring Safety of Patients and Professionals There is a high need to ensure that patients are assured that the care they receive is safe and the best possible. The staff also has support of the system. This enables attaining high quality of health service, responsive to the needs of the people and provides the organisation and the people who are working within, freedom and support to work with confidence. A number of inititatives have been taken to achieve this to include the Star Rating system at the national level and encouraging staff to out report, "adverse incidents". This is done with a view to carry out analysis and share information through out the system. Reporting processes at the local level are evolved with clarity and for creating a system of, "clinical governance". Patient Choice The key to patient satisfaction in the NHS is Patient Choice. This provides them control over appointment dates and time to suit their work and family commitments. There is also a choice of place of treatment, of selecting a hospital where best possible treatment is available, with limited waiting list and appropriate availability of specialists. This also ensures that hospitals compete for patients by improving their services and in turn provide better service to patients.3 Information Information is the key to providing patients the choice for all aspects, which have been stated above, be it

Arts and Sciences essay Essay Example for Free

Arts and Sciences essay Essay To what extent does the subjective nature of perception act as an advantage for artists and an obstacle that is to be overcome by scientists?  In the theory of knowledge, there are four ways of knowing: perception, reasoning, language and emotion. The central focus is on perception which is fundamentally about using one or more of the five senses to gain knowledge. There are several areas of knowledge such as the arts, sciences, human sciences, history, mathematics and ethics. However, the two focal areas of knowledge are the arts and sciences. A science is an area of knowledge where the scientific method is employed through formulating a hypothesis, constructing a method and drawing a scientific conclusion from the results. The arts are completely different on the other hand. It accentuates the importance of using ones imagination and expressing emotions through an aesthetically pleasing medium be it visual arts, drama, dance, music or literature. Perception is known to be very subjective which means that different individuals can perceive and interpret the same object in a different manner. What may be deduced by someone may not be the same as the conclusion that another person has drawn. The subjective nature of perception has been known to obscure the nature of science and at the same time, work well for artists. Despite certain exceptions, the subjective nature of sense perception can be viewed as a substantial advantage for artists but it can be a hindrance for scientists. Perception is known to be very subjective regardless of the sense because different people have different abilities and tastes. We know perception is subjective because one person might perceive something different from his/her acquaintance. For instance, in the movie A Beautiful Mind, the protagonist Nash has taken drugs therefore he hallucinates. Whilst he sees images of his past, his family and friends are not able to see or hear those images therefore Nashs perception has been substantially deceived. This shows that the perception is skewed towards one viewpoint because people have different abilities to see and hear different things. Another reason why perception may be subjective is because different individuals have different tastes and this can formulate differing opinions about a particular topic. For example, a Middle Eastern person, who is not very accustomed to spicy food, might find jalapenos very spicy because of the amount of heat in jalapeno however an Indian may find it insufficiently spicy because they eat much spicier food at home. Across the world, different people have contrasting tastes therefore this makes the nature of perception even more subjective. However, there are counter claims which contravene with this knowledge issue. For instance, when it comes to color, almost everyone can agree on one standpoint. For example, everyone can safely say that the sky is blue including the color blind people because they only struggle perceiving the colors red and green. This shows that perception is sometimes objective. There are some other examples that apply to the different senses besides eyesight. For example, coffee without any sugar is very bitter and almost all, if not all people can agree on the fact that sugarless coffee is bitter. This shows that there are some aspects of this world where peoples views about a particular object are the same no regardless of where they originate from. This means they acquire the same knowledge. However, the fact still remains that perception can sometimes be subjective because not too many people would interpret an object in the same manner due to differences in tastes, abilities and cultural perspectives. Moreover, we know that the subjective nature of perception can hamper a scientist from gaining correct knowledge about the sciences. For example, according to what we cover in the chemistry syllabus, the atom is composed of protons, neutrons, electrons, electron shells and orbitals. However, these subatomic particles are so infinitesimally small to the extent that no one can be able to see them, not even with the aid of a microscope. This can pose a major problem for scientists because it hampers with their knowledge of atomic chemistry. It also ignites doubts about whether claims about the atom are correct or not. There are many experiments to find out what exists within an atom but they are all different, thus substantiating the subjective nature of perception. However, this can prove to be an invalid argument because different people interpret different phenomena differently. In this case, even though all the people would struggle to see the subatomic particles, some people would more easily find evidence of atomic structures. Acids are another example which substantiates the subjectivity of perception. Orange contains an acid called citric acid which has a high pH and is therefore a weak acid.

Concepts and Strategies of Brand Management

Concepts and Strategies of Brand Management ABSTRACT Branded products can be seen everywhere around us at all time, and is a way of communication for the buyer of the product. Brand management will play a more significant role in future marketing competition, so research on the brand management is likely to become more meaningful and interesting. Brand management can really create value like increasing more adaptability, uniqueness, recognition etc. All in all, brand management is significant and can add value to firms. The project discusses all about deciding and evaluating brand name. the logo and colour of the brand play an important role in attracting the consumers. Moreover after deciding the brand name, it is mandatory to register the name at trademark registration office. All this process is followed by launching or re-launching the new product or the recalled product respectively. Moreover companies have realised that the role of the company does not got over by mere launching the brand but they have to do continuous marketing to sustain in the competitive market. Over period of time, the value of product decline due to many factors and companies have to work on the revitalizing the brand image and thus leads to success of the product. The brand name is thus one of the most powerful sources of identity CHAPTER – 1 INTRODUCTION TO BRAND A brand for a company is like a reputation for a person. You earn reputation by trying to do hard things well. is a well said verse by Jeffrey Preston Bezos, the President, Chief Executive Officer and Chairman of the board of Amazon.com BRAND A brand is a name or trademark connected with a product or producer. Brands have become increasingly important components of culture and the economy, now being dscribed as cultural accessories and personal philosophies. According to the American Marketing Association (AMA), brand is a name, term, sign, symbol, or design, or a combination of them, intended to identify the goods and services of one seller or group of sellers and to differentiate them from those of competition. Technically speaking, whenever a marketer creates a new name, logo, or symbol for a new product or service, he or she has created a brand. Now the question still is not clear about what all brand is about so we can say that brand is a promise, brand is and associated image and everyone and everything is brand. A BRAND IS A PROMISE First and foremost, a brand is a promise. It says you know the name, you can trust the promise. As all promises, it is trusted only as far as those promises are met. Trust is a critical first step and brands aim to accelerate that step by leveraging the implied promise of the brand. A BRAND IS AN ASSOCIATED IMAGE Most brands have a logo which acts as a short-cut to remind us of the brand promise. The logo uses color, shape, letters and images to create a distinctive image that is designed both to catch our eye and to guide our thoughts in the right direction. The brand may also be associated with tunes, celebrities, catchphrases and so on. All parts of the brand image works as a psychological trigger or stimulus that causes an association to all other thoughts we have about the brand. EVERYTHING AND EVERYONE IS A BRAND If you get down to the detail, everything is a brand, because we build our understanding of the world by creating associations about everything. A tree has an implied promise of beauty and shade. Even words are brands. When I say speed, you will conjure up images of fast cars, etc. People are brands, too. When people see you, or even hear your name, they will recall the image they have of you, (which is something you can actively manage or let happen). In a company where people are visible to customers, such as a service business, the people are very much a part the brand. The brand name is thus one of the most powerful sources of identity. When a brand questions its identity, the best answer is therefore to thoroughly examine its name and so try to understand the reasoning behind its creation. In doing so, we can discover the brands intentions and programme. Many brands make every effort to acquit qualities which their brand name fails to reflect or simply excludes altogether. A name-like an identity-has to be managed. Certain names may have a double meaning. The purpose of communication then is to select one and drop the other. IMPORTANCE OF BRAND Branding is a very powerful component in buisness. The brand must have a logo to make branding easier and more possible. The consumers decide if they will buy a product or use a service based on how they view the brand. The brand itself tells us or let us imagine how good ir bad the product is even we never tasted it before. All that brand promotion and advertising really do tell us how great a brand can be (like Nike). Once the customer likes your brand he/she will definitely come back for the repeated services or pproducts. The qualities of the product or services are ensured through the mind of customers from the image of the brand. Therefore, Brand is not only convinient for buisness for repeated customer purchase but also easier for customers to filter out the countless generic items. Brand gives consumer the reason to buy it and wastes less time for customer to choose a particular product or service. TYPES OF BRAND There are two main types of brand – manufacturer brands and own-label brands. MANUFACTURER BRANDS Manufacturer brands are created by producers and bear their chosen brand name. The producer is responsible for marketing the brand. The brand is owned by the producer. By building their brand names, manufacturers can gain widespread distribution (for example by retailers who want to sell the brand) and build customer loyalty (think about the manufacturer brands that you feel loyal to). OWN LABEL BRANDS Own-label brands are created and owned by businesses that operate in the distribution channel – often referred to as distributors. Often these distributors are retailers, but not exclusively. Sometimes the retailers entire product range will be own-label. However, more often, the distributor will mix own-label and manufacturers brands. Own-label branding – if well carried out – can often offer the consumer excellent value for money and provide the distributor with additional bargaining power when it comes to negotiating prices and terms with manufacturer brands BRAND EQUITY Brand equity refers to the value of a brand. Brand equity is based on the extent to which the brand has high brand loyalty, name awareness, perceived quality and strong product associations. Brand equity also includes other intangible assets such as patents, trademarks and channel relationships. The list below shows the worlds top 10 brands in 2002 (as measured by value): {Rank Brand Value ($ billions)} Coca-Cola..($69.6) Microsoft.($64.1) IBM($51.2) GE..($41.3) Intel.($30.9) Nokia.($30.0) Disney($29.3) McDonalds..($26.4) Marlboro..($24.2) Mercedes.($21.0) Source: Interbrand; JP Morgan Chase, 2002 CHAPTER 2 THE BRAND : SOURCE OF VALUE FOR THE CONSUMER The brand is a focal point for all the positive and negative impression created by buyer over time as he comes in contact with the brands product, distribution channel, personnel and communication. A brand continues to be, at least in the short term, a good example for quality even after the patent has expired. The life of patent is extented, thanks to brans, thus explaining the importance of branding in the pharmaceutical or the chemical industry. The brand performs an economic function in consumers mind and thus has a lasting and memorable effect on the companys activities. Legally a brand is simply a symbol which distinguishes a companys product and certifies its origin and thus obtains its value through registration and conformity. The value of brand comes from its ability to gain an exclusive, positive and prominent meaning in the minds of a large number of consumers. The tangible and intangible benefits which are derived from the consumption of a product of a brand are encapsulated in the strong brand. When a brand is created at first it is worth nothing. Over the time the logo acquires significance by means of advertising. Advertising are forgotten quickly whereas a brand stays in memory along with the implications which are attached to it by public. The brand is thus stocked in the mind of potential consumers. Hence, brand can be considered as an asset of the company. ADVANTAGES OF STRONG BRAND Greater perception of product or service performance. Greater marketing communication effectiveness Greater customer retention and loyalty More appreciative consumer response on price increase or decrease Has very high awareness Receives a lot of free publicity/buzz Is admired and has high purchase intent Enables the owner to charge a price premium Results in increased market share, especially for the target customers Provides increased bargaining power with business partners Provides a platform for growth beyond the current products and product categories Helps attract and retain talented employees Helps the management team align employees in support of the brands promise Often provides clarity for budgeting and capital investment decision Increases an organizations sales, profit margins, stock price and market valuation Larger margin Less vulnerability to competitive marketing action and marketing crisis Greater trade cooperation and support Possible licensing and franchising opportunities Greater brand extension opportunities ROLE OF BRAND IN PRODUCT CHARACTERIZATION The product can be characterized into three types : The qualities which are noticed by contact, before buying. Eg. Decision to buy a pair of socks. The choice is made according to the visible characteristics i.e the pattern, the style, the material, the feel, the elasticity and the price. The qualities which are noticed uniquely by experience, thus after buying. Eg. Automobile market. The performance, consumption and style can be assessed before buying the car but road-holding, the pleasure of driving, reliability and quality cannot be entirely appreciated through test drive. Credence qualities which cannot be verified even after consumption and which you have to take on trust. Eg. In the market for upmarket car, the feeling that we have made it, that certain feeling of fulfillment and personal success through buying and owing a BMW are typically the results of pure faith. Hence the role of brand is made clearer by this classification of sought-after qualities. The brand is a sign whose function is to disclose the hidden qualities of the product which are inaccessible to contact (sight, touch, hearing, smell) and possibly those which are accessible through experience but where the consumer does not want to take the risk of trying the product. As we can see, a brand provides not only a source of information but performs certain other functions which justify its attractiveness and its monetary return when it is valued by buyers. FUNCTIONS OF BRAND FOR CONSUMER The eight function of brand are presented in the table given below. The first two are mechanical and concern the essence of the brand i.e to function as a recognized symbol in order to facilitate choice and to gain time. The following three functions reduce the perceived risk. The last three have a more pleasurable side to them ethics show that the buyers are expecting, more and more, responsible behavior from their brands. FUNCTION CONSUMER BENEFIT Identification To be clearly seen, to make sense of the offer, to quickly identify the sought-after products. Practicality To allow saving of time and energy through identical repurchasing and loyalty. Guarantee To be sure of finding the same quality no matter where or when you buy the product or service. Optimization To be sure of buying the best product in its category, the best performer for the particular purpose. Characterization To have confirmation of your self-image or the image that you present to others. Continuity Satisfaction brought about through familiarity and intimacy with the brand that you have been consuming for years. Hedonistic Satisfaction linked to the attractiveness of the brand, to its logo, to its communication. Ethical Satisfaction linked to the responsible behavior of the brand in its relationship with society. Table : The function of the brand for the consumer. Hence we can say that brand plays an important role in the company. The brand of a company is created by the company and its customers together. The company has to make clear through its brand the promise it makes to its customers, based on the strategies and vision for the future of its business and products. It is vital that the company fully comprehends exactly what the customers expect from the brand, and that it continually lives up to this expectations. The aim of brand management is to create a brand that will build this long-term relationship an unshakeable bond between the company and its customers. Brand management involves the design and implementation of marketing programs and activities to build, measure, and manage brand equity.1 These concepts and techniques are to improve the long-term profitability of the brand strategies. CHAPTER – 3 BRAND MANAGEMENT Brand management is the application of marketing techniques to a specific product, product line, or brand. It seeks to increase the products perceived value to the customer and thereby increase brand franchise and brand equity. Brand management is a dynamic and a continuous process that needs consistent investment of time and money. The boardroom must ensure that brand management is allocated a specific budget as it is much more than mere marketing communications. Due to the intangible nature of branding, the results may not accrue in a short period of time a it takes time and reinforcement to build customer loyalty. Brand management is all about the total approach says about defining the brand and control its management by the leaders of the company. Once the approach is finalised than create the promise by describing all about the product followed by making the promise by doing marketing of the product and inject the information about the product into the mind of consumer. Lastly it is important to keep the promise, what you have made during the marketing of the product. TOTAL APPROACH Brand management starts with understanding what brand really means. This starts with the leaders of the company who define the brand and control its management. It also reaches all the way down the company and especially to the people who interface with customers or who create the products which customers use. Brand management performed to its full extent means starting and ending the management of the whole company through the brand. It is simply far too important to leave to the marketing department. CREATING THE PROMISE Creating the promise means defining the brand. A good brand promise is memorable and desirable. It cannot be effective if nobody remembers it, and is no good either if nobody wants it. A good brand promise evokes feelings, because feelings drive actions. The promise must be unique and identified with you alone. The right promise comes through a deep understanding of the marketplace and the customers who are going to use the product. It also comes from a deep understanding of the capabilities and motivations of the people in the company. MAKING THE PROMISE Once the promise is created, the next step is to somehow inject it into the minds of the customers, the staff and everyone who receives anything from you or has any impact on what you deliver. This is where marketing people come into their own. Although it is still not their sole preserve, a large part of marketing, which includes advertising and PR, is about positioning the company and its products in the minds of customers and against your competitors. KEEPING THE PROMISE Creating and making the right promise is one thing, but then you have to keep it. If you do not, you brand will still exist, but now the promise will be of slipshod products and inconsistent delivery. Keeping promises means managing capability. It means consistent processes that are capable of delivering what is required. It means technology and systems which are reliable and usable. It means motivated people who are willing and able to deliver the goods. Marketers see a brand as an implied promise that the level of quality people have come to expect from a brand will continue with future purchases of the same product. This may increase sales by making a comparison with competing products favourable. It may also enable the manufacturer to charge more for the product. The value of the brand is determined by the amount of profit it generates for the manufacturer. Brand management includes the trademark registration of the brand, brand selection and evaluation, launching a brand sustaining a brand, brand extension. The trademark registration in India follows the trademark registration procedures and specific laws. CHAPTER – 4 BRAND SELECTION AND EVALUATION In the next five years, we will see a rapidly changing landscape across the globe, where the opportunities for businesses to benefit from corporate and product branding efforts will be larger than ever before. The growing emphasis on branding will move up the boardroom agenda and it is strongly believed that branding will become one of the most prominent drivers of value across the globe in the next two decades. Businesses with a sustainable business model and with a visionary and passionate CEO with branding talent will benefit from the rising opportunities for competing in the modern marketplace and potentially taking on the global scene. It needs to be no less than the CEO who embodies the branding efforts and serves as the companys and thereby the brands primary advocate and nurturer. The approach is particularly well suited to companies whose top executives have a passion and talent for brand strategy, but in tomorrows tough environment all top-executives must be able to represent and lead the brand. The top executives of world class companies are directly involved in leading the branding vision, strategy and implementation, and spend a significant amount of their work hours to drive their brands forward and to achieve even better results. Tomorrows CEO must be a brand champion who leads corporate and product branding strategies, all strategic brand-portfolio decisions and constantly monitors the implementation of the brand locally, regionally and globally. A strong CEO has credibility and respect not only because of business talent and organizational power but also because of the depth of experience, knowledge, and insight. A suggestion from a visionary CEO with branding talent and managerial experience in branding and marketing is the key driver of the branding efforts and results in any successful organization internally and externally. The selection and evaluation of a product or service name is one of the brand name components. We know that : It ensures legal protection of certain product or service characteristics, which prevents competition from copying them It allows producers and salesmen to obtain a loyal and profitable consumer group It allows easier adjustment to segmented markets as the companies are able to function on the principle of one brand name one segment It allows the company image to be established It allows a connection with the desired product or service position It makes the product attractive for the consumer It creates various advantages and exclusiveness for the product or service METHODS USED TO CHOOSE A PRODUCT NAME Just as parents carefully choose names for their children, companies have the same difficult and extremely responsible task for naming products. They conduct qualitative research by which we can evaluate the relation to the product, its use, the product image and its comparison to competition. They organize brainstorming meetings from which we get an enormous amount of suggestions for the new names. They offer a chain associates with associations which relates to the product or individual names.they form a base for name suggestions. They apply eureka method helping with various literature, computer scattering of letters and creating new names. They test the name suggestion in target groups. PROCESS OF SELECTING AND EVALUATING BRAND NAMES The process of selecting and evaluating brand names runs according to the following steps : Identification of goals and criteria for brand name. Creating bank names Selection of suggestion Evaluating the consumer Evaluating legal protection Final name decision IDENTIFICATION OF GOALS AND CRITERIA FOR BRAND NAME The basis for a targeted search of a suitable name is determining the starting points, which means criteria that are expressed by a suitable name. Apart from general ones such as easy to remember, popularity, easy pronunciation etc. it is essential to determine specific ones that derive from the desired brand name position which will carry such a name. CREATING BANK NAMES In creating bank names it is important to rely on many sources. In this way we are able to rely on many sources. In this way we are able to avoid fixations on only one idea which narrows the creative process. The purpose of this phase is to obtain various suggestions according to the pre determined starting points. SELECTION OF SUGGESTION The next level in finding a suitable name is the selection of suggestion which have been made. A qualified team of experts that consists of many different people does the selection. The selection is finished when 8-12 suggestions that the most correspond to the expert teams opinion have been chosen. EVALUATING THE CONSUMER When a qualified team of experts make its suggestion, the most suitable bank name in their opinion, it is important to evaluate them in target groups. This must be done, because the name of the brand will be given to a product or service which will fulfil the needs of certain groups of people. The chosen name must be likeable and suitable for this group of people. EVALUATING LEGAL PROTECTION Before the final decision of the most suitable suggestion it is essential to check whether the client can register the name of the brand. In most cases the client or the holder of the brands name can do this before the testing of consumer suggestions. FINAL NAME DECISION The final decision on the chosen name depends on the client, who must consider not only the outcome of the evaluation by target consumer groups but also the position he wishes the product to have. After selecting the brand name the important things on which we should focus is its character, its visual symbol and logotypes, its colour, geographical and historical roots. BRAND CHARACTER One of the most important assets of an enterprise is the brand. The character of the brand is a critical success factor for the enterprise (and for the value of the brand). Character can be seen in terms of the attention, affection and trust awarded to the brand by the market. For a brand to have character, it needs to have positive public awareness. It also needs to have clarity, and a consistent brand proposition. This means that customers know what to expect from the brand in terms of product quality, customer service and so on. It also means that people supporting the brand (whether your own staff or third parties) know how to deliver the brand proposition. VISUAL SYMBOLS AND LOGOTYPES Everybody knows Nikes dash, Adidas three stripes, Nestlà ©s nest, Amuls girl. These symbols help us to understand the brands culture and personality. They are actually chosen as such, the corporate specifications handed over to graphic identity and design agencies mainly pertain to the brands personality traits and values. Logo should be: simple distinctive intuitive COLOUR PSYCHOLOGY AND BRAND Colour is one of the most important components in creating brand identity. The purpose of a brand identity system is to encode a brand in peoples memory and retrieve it from their memory. In a visual system, the two most powerful components are the consistent recognizable shapes and colours. It is best if these shapes and colours are distinctive. Colour can have a significant affect on peoples perception of a product or brand. For instance, burgundy and forest green are perceived to be upscale while an orange label or package indicates an inexpensive item. Third, colours can actually have an affect on a persons state of mind and cognitive ability as demonstrated by numerous research studies. For instance, pink has been shown to increase a persons appetite and calm prison inmates. Be aware that colors can have different symbolic meanings in different countries and cultures. BRAND NAME The importance of an image has become an emotional part of everyone. A brand name represents the image, character and personality of a brand. A brand name should be clear, lucid, easy to remember, distinct from the competition and should not be generic to the category. It should become customers Top of the mind brand (TOMB). Most successful brand names would satisfy these criterions to quite an extent. Brand names that are linked to associations of their origins or product will create first impressions to the user. BRAND IMAGE The vast flow of names today makes it harder to differentiate them unless they come out with their own uniqueness. This way, they could come to their special position in everyday life. The image following a particular name is also determined by the role of communication it undergoes; of which the followings are included: its manner, personality, behavior, ethics, values, etc. The importance of brands depends on the true ambitions of the company. It is important to take into account several factors and market circumstances before finalizing the brand name and its image. Company should take into account several factors and market circumstances like company goals, consumer wishes and expectations, trade groups and several other groups. A company builds its brand image through trade communication with its consumers. That is how a company informs the consumer of what the brand represents, what its values are, what the company is offering or guaranteeing the consumer, what its advantages are, its qualities etc. The consumers interpret all obtained information and form a subjective perception of the brand or its image. CHAPTER – 5 TRADEMARK REGISTRATION LEGISLATION (INDIA TRADEMARK LAW) The Indian law of trademarks is enshrined the new Trade Marks Act, 1999 came into force with effect from September 15, 2003. The old Trade and Merchandise Marks Act, 1958 was repealed at the same time. The new Trademarks Act of 1999 is in line with the World Trade Organisation recommendations and is in conformity with the TRIPS Agreement to which India is a signatory. MAIN FEATURES OF NEW LEGISLATION IN INDIA Under the new Trademarks Act of 1999 Registration of Service Marks allowed in addition to Trademarks for goods. No separate application necessary for each category/class of goods or services; a single application would do, however filing fee will be charged separately for each class of goods/services. The term of registration of trademark is ten years, subject to renewal thereafter The system of maintaining registration of trademark in Part A and Part B with different legal rights, dispensed away. Registration of trademarks which are imitations of well known trademarks not permitted. Registration of Collective Marks owned by associations allowed. Offences relating to trademark made cognizable. Filing Fees enhanced by more than 8 times. Extension of application of convention countries. WHAT IS A TRADEMARK ? A Mark` may consist of a word or invented word, signature, device, letter, numeral, brand, heading, label, name written in a particular style, the shape of goods other than those for which a mark is proposed to be used, or any combination thereof or a combination of colors and so forth. Subject to certain conditions, a trademark may also be symbolized by the name of a person, living or dead. For the purpose of registration, a mark chosen should be capable of distinguishing goods or services of one person from those of the others. Further it should not be deceptively similar to an existing mark of another person and not the one expressly prohibited under the Act. The marks devoid of any distinctive character, or which are only indicative of the kind, quality, quantity, purpose, value or geographical origin of the goods, or which are marks already in vogue in the trade due to their customary use may not be registered. But these disqualifications do not apply to marks, which have already acquired distinction due to their popularity and consistent use. Internationally acclaimed brand names are freely available for use in Indi Concepts and Strategies of Brand Management Concepts and Strategies of Brand Management ABSTRACT Branded products can be seen everywhere around us at all time, and is a way of communication for the buyer of the product. Brand management will play a more significant role in future marketing competition, so research on the brand management is likely to become more meaningful and interesting. Brand management can really create value like increasing more adaptability, uniqueness, recognition etc. All in all, brand management is significant and can add value to firms. The project discusses all about deciding and evaluating brand name. the logo and colour of the brand play an important role in attracting the consumers. Moreover after deciding the brand name, it is mandatory to register the name at trademark registration office. All this process is followed by launching or re-launching the new product or the recalled product respectively. Moreover companies have realised that the role of the company does not got over by mere launching the brand but they have to do continuous marketing to sustain in the competitive market. Over period of time, the value of product decline due to many factors and companies have to work on the revitalizing the brand image and thus leads to success of the product. The brand name is thus one of the most powerful sources of identity CHAPTER – 1 INTRODUCTION TO BRAND A brand for a company is like a reputation for a person. You earn reputation by trying to do hard things well. is a well said verse by Jeffrey Preston Bezos, the President, Chief Executive Officer and Chairman of the board of Amazon.com BRAND A brand is a name or trademark connected with a product or producer. Brands have become increasingly important components of culture and the economy, now being dscribed as cultural accessories and personal philosophies. According to the American Marketing Association (AMA), brand is a name, term, sign, symbol, or design, or a combination of them, intended to identify the goods and services of one seller or group of sellers and to differentiate them from those of competition. Technically speaking, whenever a marketer creates a new name, logo, or symbol for a new product or service, he or she has created a brand. Now the question still is not clear about what all brand is about so we can say that brand is a promise, brand is and associated image and everyone and everything is brand. A BRAND IS A PROMISE First and foremost, a brand is a promise. It says you know the name, you can trust the promise. As all promises, it is trusted only as far as those promises are met. Trust is a critical first step and brands aim to accelerate that step by leveraging the implied promise of the brand. A BRAND IS AN ASSOCIATED IMAGE Most brands have a logo which acts as a short-cut to remind us of the brand promise. The logo uses color, shape, letters and images to create a distinctive image that is designed both to catch our eye and to guide our thoughts in the right direction. The brand may also be associated with tunes, celebrities, catchphrases and so on. All parts of the brand image works as a psychological trigger or stimulus that causes an association to all other thoughts we have about the brand. EVERYTHING AND EVERYONE IS A BRAND If you get down to the detail, everything is a brand, because we build our understanding of the world by creating associations about everything. A tree has an implied promise of beauty and shade. Even words are brands. When I say speed, you will conjure up images of fast cars, etc. People are brands, too. When people see you, or even hear your name, they will recall the image they have of you, (which is something you can actively manage or let happen). In a company where people are visible to customers, such as a service business, the people are very much a part the brand. The brand name is thus one of the most powerful sources of identity. When a brand questions its identity, the best answer is therefore to thoroughly examine its name and so try to understand the reasoning behind its creation. In doing so, we can discover the brands intentions and programme. Many brands make every effort to acquit qualities which their brand name fails to reflect or simply excludes altogether. A name-like an identity-has to be managed. Certain names may have a double meaning. The purpose of communication then is to select one and drop the other. IMPORTANCE OF BRAND Branding is a very powerful component in buisness. The brand must have a logo to make branding easier and more possible. The consumers decide if they will buy a product or use a service based on how they view the brand. The brand itself tells us or let us imagine how good ir bad the product is even we never tasted it before. All that brand promotion and advertising really do tell us how great a brand can be (like Nike). Once the customer likes your brand he/she will definitely come back for the repeated services or pproducts. The qualities of the product or services are ensured through the mind of customers from the image of the brand. Therefore, Brand is not only convinient for buisness for repeated customer purchase but also easier for customers to filter out the countless generic items. Brand gives consumer the reason to buy it and wastes less time for customer to choose a particular product or service. TYPES OF BRAND There are two main types of brand – manufacturer brands and own-label brands. MANUFACTURER BRANDS Manufacturer brands are created by producers and bear their chosen brand name. The producer is responsible for marketing the brand. The brand is owned by the producer. By building their brand names, manufacturers can gain widespread distribution (for example by retailers who want to sell the brand) and build customer loyalty (think about the manufacturer brands that you feel loyal to). OWN LABEL BRANDS Own-label brands are created and owned by businesses that operate in the distribution channel – often referred to as distributors. Often these distributors are retailers, but not exclusively. Sometimes the retailers entire product range will be own-label. However, more often, the distributor will mix own-label and manufacturers brands. Own-label branding – if well carried out – can often offer the consumer excellent value for money and provide the distributor with additional bargaining power when it comes to negotiating prices and terms with manufacturer brands BRAND EQUITY Brand equity refers to the value of a brand. Brand equity is based on the extent to which the brand has high brand loyalty, name awareness, perceived quality and strong product associations. Brand equity also includes other intangible assets such as patents, trademarks and channel relationships. The list below shows the worlds top 10 brands in 2002 (as measured by value): {Rank Brand Value ($ billions)} Coca-Cola..($69.6) Microsoft.($64.1) IBM($51.2) GE..($41.3) Intel.($30.9) Nokia.($30.0) Disney($29.3) McDonalds..($26.4) Marlboro..($24.2) Mercedes.($21.0) Source: Interbrand; JP Morgan Chase, 2002 CHAPTER 2 THE BRAND : SOURCE OF VALUE FOR THE CONSUMER The brand is a focal point for all the positive and negative impression created by buyer over time as he comes in contact with the brands product, distribution channel, personnel and communication. A brand continues to be, at least in the short term, a good example for quality even after the patent has expired. The life of patent is extented, thanks to brans, thus explaining the importance of branding in the pharmaceutical or the chemical industry. The brand performs an economic function in consumers mind and thus has a lasting and memorable effect on the companys activities. Legally a brand is simply a symbol which distinguishes a companys product and certifies its origin and thus obtains its value through registration and conformity. The value of brand comes from its ability to gain an exclusive, positive and prominent meaning in the minds of a large number of consumers. The tangible and intangible benefits which are derived from the consumption of a product of a brand are encapsulated in the strong brand. When a brand is created at first it is worth nothing. Over the time the logo acquires significance by means of advertising. Advertising are forgotten quickly whereas a brand stays in memory along with the implications which are attached to it by public. The brand is thus stocked in the mind of potential consumers. Hence, brand can be considered as an asset of the company. ADVANTAGES OF STRONG BRAND Greater perception of product or service performance. Greater marketing communication effectiveness Greater customer retention and loyalty More appreciative consumer response on price increase or decrease Has very high awareness Receives a lot of free publicity/buzz Is admired and has high purchase intent Enables the owner to charge a price premium Results in increased market share, especially for the target customers Provides increased bargaining power with business partners Provides a platform for growth beyond the current products and product categories Helps attract and retain talented employees Helps the management team align employees in support of the brands promise Often provides clarity for budgeting and capital investment decision Increases an organizations sales, profit margins, stock price and market valuation Larger margin Less vulnerability to competitive marketing action and marketing crisis Greater trade cooperation and support Possible licensing and franchising opportunities Greater brand extension opportunities ROLE OF BRAND IN PRODUCT CHARACTERIZATION The product can be characterized into three types : The qualities which are noticed by contact, before buying. Eg. Decision to buy a pair of socks. The choice is made according to the visible characteristics i.e the pattern, the style, the material, the feel, the elasticity and the price. The qualities which are noticed uniquely by experience, thus after buying. Eg. Automobile market. The performance, consumption and style can be assessed before buying the car but road-holding, the pleasure of driving, reliability and quality cannot be entirely appreciated through test drive. Credence qualities which cannot be verified even after consumption and which you have to take on trust. Eg. In the market for upmarket car, the feeling that we have made it, that certain feeling of fulfillment and personal success through buying and owing a BMW are typically the results of pure faith. Hence the role of brand is made clearer by this classification of sought-after qualities. The brand is a sign whose function is to disclose the hidden qualities of the product which are inaccessible to contact (sight, touch, hearing, smell) and possibly those which are accessible through experience but where the consumer does not want to take the risk of trying the product. As we can see, a brand provides not only a source of information but performs certain other functions which justify its attractiveness and its monetary return when it is valued by buyers. FUNCTIONS OF BRAND FOR CONSUMER The eight function of brand are presented in the table given below. The first two are mechanical and concern the essence of the brand i.e to function as a recognized symbol in order to facilitate choice and to gain time. The following three functions reduce the perceived risk. The last three have a more pleasurable side to them ethics show that the buyers are expecting, more and more, responsible behavior from their brands. FUNCTION CONSUMER BENEFIT Identification To be clearly seen, to make sense of the offer, to quickly identify the sought-after products. Practicality To allow saving of time and energy through identical repurchasing and loyalty. Guarantee To be sure of finding the same quality no matter where or when you buy the product or service. Optimization To be sure of buying the best product in its category, the best performer for the particular purpose. Characterization To have confirmation of your self-image or the image that you present to others. Continuity Satisfaction brought about through familiarity and intimacy with the brand that you have been consuming for years. Hedonistic Satisfaction linked to the attractiveness of the brand, to its logo, to its communication. Ethical Satisfaction linked to the responsible behavior of the brand in its relationship with society. Table : The function of the brand for the consumer. Hence we can say that brand plays an important role in the company. The brand of a company is created by the company and its customers together. The company has to make clear through its brand the promise it makes to its customers, based on the strategies and vision for the future of its business and products. It is vital that the company fully comprehends exactly what the customers expect from the brand, and that it continually lives up to this expectations. The aim of brand management is to create a brand that will build this long-term relationship an unshakeable bond between the company and its customers. Brand management involves the design and implementation of marketing programs and activities to build, measure, and manage brand equity.1 These concepts and techniques are to improve the long-term profitability of the brand strategies. CHAPTER – 3 BRAND MANAGEMENT Brand management is the application of marketing techniques to a specific product, product line, or brand. It seeks to increase the products perceived value to the customer and thereby increase brand franchise and brand equity. Brand management is a dynamic and a continuous process that needs consistent investment of time and money. The boardroom must ensure that brand management is allocated a specific budget as it is much more than mere marketing communications. Due to the intangible nature of branding, the results may not accrue in a short period of time a it takes time and reinforcement to build customer loyalty. Brand management is all about the total approach says about defining the brand and control its management by the leaders of the company. Once the approach is finalised than create the promise by describing all about the product followed by making the promise by doing marketing of the product and inject the information about the product into the mind of consumer. Lastly it is important to keep the promise, what you have made during the marketing of the product. TOTAL APPROACH Brand management starts with understanding what brand really means. This starts with the leaders of the company who define the brand and control its management. It also reaches all the way down the company and especially to the people who interface with customers or who create the products which customers use. Brand management performed to its full extent means starting and ending the management of the whole company through the brand. It is simply far too important to leave to the marketing department. CREATING THE PROMISE Creating the promise means defining the brand. A good brand promise is memorable and desirable. It cannot be effective if nobody remembers it, and is no good either if nobody wants it. A good brand promise evokes feelings, because feelings drive actions. The promise must be unique and identified with you alone. The right promise comes through a deep understanding of the marketplace and the customers who are going to use the product. It also comes from a deep understanding of the capabilities and motivations of the people in the company. MAKING THE PROMISE Once the promise is created, the next step is to somehow inject it into the minds of the customers, the staff and everyone who receives anything from you or has any impact on what you deliver. This is where marketing people come into their own. Although it is still not their sole preserve, a large part of marketing, which includes advertising and PR, is about positioning the company and its products in the minds of customers and against your competitors. KEEPING THE PROMISE Creating and making the right promise is one thing, but then you have to keep it. If you do not, you brand will still exist, but now the promise will be of slipshod products and inconsistent delivery. Keeping promises means managing capability. It means consistent processes that are capable of delivering what is required. It means technology and systems which are reliable and usable. It means motivated people who are willing and able to deliver the goods. Marketers see a brand as an implied promise that the level of quality people have come to expect from a brand will continue with future purchases of the same product. This may increase sales by making a comparison with competing products favourable. It may also enable the manufacturer to charge more for the product. The value of the brand is determined by the amount of profit it generates for the manufacturer. Brand management includes the trademark registration of the brand, brand selection and evaluation, launching a brand sustaining a brand, brand extension. The trademark registration in India follows the trademark registration procedures and specific laws. CHAPTER – 4 BRAND SELECTION AND EVALUATION In the next five years, we will see a rapidly changing landscape across the globe, where the opportunities for businesses to benefit from corporate and product branding efforts will be larger than ever before. The growing emphasis on branding will move up the boardroom agenda and it is strongly believed that branding will become one of the most prominent drivers of value across the globe in the next two decades. Businesses with a sustainable business model and with a visionary and passionate CEO with branding talent will benefit from the rising opportunities for competing in the modern marketplace and potentially taking on the global scene. It needs to be no less than the CEO who embodies the branding efforts and serves as the companys and thereby the brands primary advocate and nurturer. The approach is particularly well suited to companies whose top executives have a passion and talent for brand strategy, but in tomorrows tough environment all top-executives must be able to represent and lead the brand. The top executives of world class companies are directly involved in leading the branding vision, strategy and implementation, and spend a significant amount of their work hours to drive their brands forward and to achieve even better results. Tomorrows CEO must be a brand champion who leads corporate and product branding strategies, all strategic brand-portfolio decisions and constantly monitors the implementation of the brand locally, regionally and globally. A strong CEO has credibility and respect not only because of business talent and organizational power but also because of the depth of experience, knowledge, and insight. A suggestion from a visionary CEO with branding talent and managerial experience in branding and marketing is the key driver of the branding efforts and results in any successful organization internally and externally. The selection and evaluation of a product or service name is one of the brand name components. We know that : It ensures legal protection of certain product or service characteristics, which prevents competition from copying them It allows producers and salesmen to obtain a loyal and profitable consumer group It allows easier adjustment to segmented markets as the companies are able to function on the principle of one brand name one segment It allows the company image to be established It allows a connection with the desired product or service position It makes the product attractive for the consumer It creates various advantages and exclusiveness for the product or service METHODS USED TO CHOOSE A PRODUCT NAME Just as parents carefully choose names for their children, companies have the same difficult and extremely responsible task for naming products. They conduct qualitative research by which we can evaluate the relation to the product, its use, the product image and its comparison to competition. They organize brainstorming meetings from which we get an enormous amount of suggestions for the new names. They offer a chain associates with associations which relates to the product or individual names.they form a base for name suggestions. They apply eureka method helping with various literature, computer scattering of letters and creating new names. They test the name suggestion in target groups. PROCESS OF SELECTING AND EVALUATING BRAND NAMES The process of selecting and evaluating brand names runs according to the following steps : Identification of goals and criteria for brand name. Creating bank names Selection of suggestion Evaluating the consumer Evaluating legal protection Final name decision IDENTIFICATION OF GOALS AND CRITERIA FOR BRAND NAME The basis for a targeted search of a suitable name is determining the starting points, which means criteria that are expressed by a suitable name. Apart from general ones such as easy to remember, popularity, easy pronunciation etc. it is essential to determine specific ones that derive from the desired brand name position which will carry such a name. CREATING BANK NAMES In creating bank names it is important to rely on many sources. In this way we are able to rely on many sources. In this way we are able to avoid fixations on only one idea which narrows the creative process. The purpose of this phase is to obtain various suggestions according to the pre determined starting points. SELECTION OF SUGGESTION The next level in finding a suitable name is the selection of suggestion which have been made. A qualified team of experts that consists of many different people does the selection. The selection is finished when 8-12 suggestions that the most correspond to the expert teams opinion have been chosen. EVALUATING THE CONSUMER When a qualified team of experts make its suggestion, the most suitable bank name in their opinion, it is important to evaluate them in target groups. This must be done, because the name of the brand will be given to a product or service which will fulfil the needs of certain groups of people. The chosen name must be likeable and suitable for this group of people. EVALUATING LEGAL PROTECTION Before the final decision of the most suitable suggestion it is essential to check whether the client can register the name of the brand. In most cases the client or the holder of the brands name can do this before the testing of consumer suggestions. FINAL NAME DECISION The final decision on the chosen name depends on the client, who must consider not only the outcome of the evaluation by target consumer groups but also the position he wishes the product to have. After selecting the brand name the important things on which we should focus is its character, its visual symbol and logotypes, its colour, geographical and historical roots. BRAND CHARACTER One of the most important assets of an enterprise is the brand. The character of the brand is a critical success factor for the enterprise (and for the value of the brand). Character can be seen in terms of the attention, affection and trust awarded to the brand by the market. For a brand to have character, it needs to have positive public awareness. It also needs to have clarity, and a consistent brand proposition. This means that customers know what to expect from the brand in terms of product quality, customer service and so on. It also means that people supporting the brand (whether your own staff or third parties) know how to deliver the brand proposition. VISUAL SYMBOLS AND LOGOTYPES Everybody knows Nikes dash, Adidas three stripes, Nestlà ©s nest, Amuls girl. These symbols help us to understand the brands culture and personality. They are actually chosen as such, the corporate specifications handed over to graphic identity and design agencies mainly pertain to the brands personality traits and values. Logo should be: simple distinctive intuitive COLOUR PSYCHOLOGY AND BRAND Colour is one of the most important components in creating brand identity. The purpose of a brand identity system is to encode a brand in peoples memory and retrieve it from their memory. In a visual system, the two most powerful components are the consistent recognizable shapes and colours. It is best if these shapes and colours are distinctive. Colour can have a significant affect on peoples perception of a product or brand. For instance, burgundy and forest green are perceived to be upscale while an orange label or package indicates an inexpensive item. Third, colours can actually have an affect on a persons state of mind and cognitive ability as demonstrated by numerous research studies. For instance, pink has been shown to increase a persons appetite and calm prison inmates. Be aware that colors can have different symbolic meanings in different countries and cultures. BRAND NAME The importance of an image has become an emotional part of everyone. A brand name represents the image, character and personality of a brand. A brand name should be clear, lucid, easy to remember, distinct from the competition and should not be generic to the category. It should become customers Top of the mind brand (TOMB). Most successful brand names would satisfy these criterions to quite an extent. Brand names that are linked to associations of their origins or product will create first impressions to the user. BRAND IMAGE The vast flow of names today makes it harder to differentiate them unless they come out with their own uniqueness. This way, they could come to their special position in everyday life. The image following a particular name is also determined by the role of communication it undergoes; of which the followings are included: its manner, personality, behavior, ethics, values, etc. The importance of brands depends on the true ambitions of the company. It is important to take into account several factors and market circumstances before finalizing the brand name and its image. Company should take into account several factors and market circumstances like company goals, consumer wishes and expectations, trade groups and several other groups. A company builds its brand image through trade communication with its consumers. That is how a company informs the consumer of what the brand represents, what its values are, what the company is offering or guaranteeing the consumer, what its advantages are, its qualities etc. The consumers interpret all obtained information and form a subjective perception of the brand or its image. CHAPTER – 5 TRADEMARK REGISTRATION LEGISLATION (INDIA TRADEMARK LAW) The Indian law of trademarks is enshrined the new Trade Marks Act, 1999 came into force with effect from September 15, 2003. The old Trade and Merchandise Marks Act, 1958 was repealed at the same time. The new Trademarks Act of 1999 is in line with the World Trade Organisation recommendations and is in conformity with the TRIPS Agreement to which India is a signatory. MAIN FEATURES OF NEW LEGISLATION IN INDIA Under the new Trademarks Act of 1999 Registration of Service Marks allowed in addition to Trademarks for goods. No separate application necessary for each category/class of goods or services; a single application would do, however filing fee will be charged separately for each class of goods/services. The term of registration of trademark is ten years, subject to renewal thereafter The system of maintaining registration of trademark in Part A and Part B with different legal rights, dispensed away. Registration of trademarks which are imitations of well known trademarks not permitted. Registration of Collective Marks owned by associations allowed. Offences relating to trademark made cognizable. Filing Fees enhanced by more than 8 times. Extension of application of convention countries. WHAT IS A TRADEMARK ? A Mark` may consist of a word or invented word, signature, device, letter, numeral, brand, heading, label, name written in a particular style, the shape of goods other than those for which a mark is proposed to be used, or any combination thereof or a combination of colors and so forth. Subject to certain conditions, a trademark may also be symbolized by the name of a person, living or dead. For the purpose of registration, a mark chosen should be capable of distinguishing goods or services of one person from those of the others. Further it should not be deceptively similar to an existing mark of another person and not the one expressly prohibited under the Act. The marks devoid of any distinctive character, or which are only indicative of the kind, quality, quantity, purpose, value or geographical origin of the goods, or which are marks already in vogue in the trade due to their customary use may not be registered. But these disqualifications do not apply to marks, which have already acquired distinction due to their popularity and consistent use. Internationally acclaimed brand names are freely available for use in Indi

Effort Estimation Model

Effort Estimation Model Effort Estimation Model for each Phase of Software Development Life Cycle Information Technology Abstract Assessment of main risks of software development discloses that major threat of delays are caused by poor effort / cost estimation of the project. Low / poor cost estimation is the second highest priority risk [1]. This risk can affect four out of total five phases of software development life cycle i.e. Analysis, Design, Coding and Testing. Hence targeting this risk alone may reduce the over all risk impact of the project by fifty percent. Architectural designing of the system is great activity which consumes most of the time in SDLC. Obviously effort is put to produce the design of the system. It is evident that none of the existing estimation models try to calculate the effort put on designing of the system. Although use case estimation model uses the use case points to estimate the cost. But what is the cost of creating use cases? One reason of poor estimates produced by existing models can be negligence of design effort/cost. Therefore it shall be well estimated to prevent any cost overrun of the project. We propose a model to estimate the effort in each of these phases rather than just relying upon the cost estimation of the coding phase only. It will also ease the monitoring of project status and comparison against planned cost and actual cost incurred so far at any point of time. Key Words: Effort estimation, software development life cycle, Risk Mitigation, Project Planning. Section 1:Back Ground and Motivation Existing estimation techniques such as Functions point estimation and use case estimation rely upon the artifacts generated in earlier phase. These artifacts (i.e. Use case diagrams, class diagrams, sequence diagrams, activity diagrams, state chart diagrams etc) depict the architectural design of the entire system. These diagrams are not generated out of a blue or are not instantly available without putting any effort. Standard task set and the percentage of work duration associated with it decomposes the ratio of effort put in each phase. Activity Standard Work Effort% Definition Phase Business Requirements 6% Functional Specifications 10% Delivery Phase Detailed Design 14% Code and Unit Test 40% System Testing 20% User Acceptance Testing 10% Total Effort 100% Table 1 Standard Task Set Work Duration %age [4] It is evident in Table 1 that although major ratio (i.e. 40%) of work effort is put in code and unit test phase. The rest 60 percent effort is put in different areas of the project development life cycle. Hence this signifies the importance of estimating cost for these phases of software development life cycle. Usually the effort estimation is done after the analyses phase when the project reaches into coding stage. The cost / effort is measured in terms of line of codes for each functionality to be incorporated into the software. Therefore it is very clear to understand that only 40 % (i.e. as shown in table 1) of the total software development effort is estimated. Whereas this estimation is delayed until all the analyses and design has completed. We have adapted a different approach and suggest that effort estimation shall be carried out for each phase of the development process. We propose this model to avoid the risk of low cost estimation as earliest as possible in the development process. Current software cost estimation methods first try to know the size of the software to be built. Based upon this size the expected effort to be put is measured. Estimated effort further is utilized to calculate the duration (i.e. Time required) and cost (monetary/human resources) of the project. Calculating the size of project is the foremost logical step to be taken in order to estimate the effort. If we do not know the distance to be travelled we can not estimate the cost and duration per mileage. Therefore we also first measure the size of the entire project. We know that there are mainly three categories of software projects i.e. Organic mode: These are relatively small, simple SW projects (application programs e.g. Thermal analysis program) Embedded mode: System programs which are developed within tight HW, SW and operational constraints (flight control SW for aircraft). Semi-detached mode: An intermediate level (size and complexity, utility programs) SW projects with mixed experience, mixed requirements. It can be mixture of organic and embedded software as well. Therefore these categories of the software project would effect the estimation of each phase. We propose the modular approach to be adapted for the development efforts so that even large scale enterprise information systems can also be decomposed into a mix of several modules of organic, semi detached, and embedded system. Therefore the focus can be put in individual module accordingly. Following are the sections which individually discuss the methods to estimate the expected effort to be put in each phase of software development life cycle. Section 2: Measuring the Size of each project We do not try to measure the size of the project as a whole rather focus on measuring the size of each phase i.e. Analyses, design, coding and testing phases. This can provide us different milestones in the road map of project development. Our main objective is to suggest the estimation methods for analysis, design and testing phasing. We do not focus much on coding phase, as we would refer to the already done work for this phase. We estimate the size of each phase based on the artifacts and project products which are produced in that particular phase. E.g. the analyses phase produces the detailed user requirements document (use cases etc), design phase produces the class diagram, database Model i.e. E-R diagram, Sequence diagrams, activity diagrams etc. based upon these deliverables in each phase the time and effort to produce these are estimated. Figure 1 shows the step wise flow chart of entire project planning process. After the identification of project scope/objectives, characteristics and infrastructure, the identification of all the activities is done. This identification of activities at early stage may provide the strong basis to estimate the size of each individual phase of software development process. As this involves the work break down structure to be defined and can identify the product / deliverable of each phase. Figure also shows that based on this identification of each activity the cost and risk are estimated for each activity. As this is part of project planning. Therefore we can obtain this information in the most earliest phase of project planning and do not need to wait for longer duration as have to wait in existing cost estimation models to estimate the cost of construction of the software. Hence early stage activity identification can help us to estimate the cost/effort for each phase i.e. analysis, design, coding and testing. Figure 1. Step wise Project Planning [3] Moreover the responsibility of the analysis and design of the system goes to the systems analyst. Generally system is viewed in terms of a collection of sub systems therefore each sub system analysis and design is the responsibility of any individual analyst. Hence the human resource need is very clear for analysis and design phase. But when team work is done in coding and testing phases then more stressed has to be put to estimate the required human resources. Bruegge defines the following work products to be generated in each phase of software development life cycle. Figure 2 Software Life Cycle Activities. [6] Bruegge describes and decomposes the overall system model and design into three types of design models i.e. Analysis model Object Design model Behavioral model Section 3: Requirement Elicitation Analyses Phase Size and Effort Estimation In earlier phase of the development process the scope is defined. This may also provide an intuitive vision of project size to the experienced project managers. Unified Process for software development defines the work products in different phases. [2] During the analyses phase we propose Inception points to be identified and estimated. Inception points refer to the points which must be analyzed about in context of the interest of each stakeholder. As use cases represent the points of some business operation or systems functionality, which needs to be clearly understood and modeled therefore we call them inception points. We must know the accurate number of inception points and the effort needed to develop those points. Unified process for software development describes the following main work products in Inception phase. Definition of the problem Identification of all stakeholders Identification of Functional / non functional requirements Validation of requirements [2] Therefore all the main inception points can be clearly identified. Inception point will mainly focus around the identification of the users / stakeholders (possible actors functionality needed) and requirements. The size can be estimated for this phase by estimating the requirements. This can further be utilized to estimate the cost to build the use cases for each requirement. We suggest that the elicitation of requirements may consume effort / cost relevant to the number of requirements and user present. No of Requirements No of Users Project Size Less than 25 1-10 Small 25 50 11-50 Average 50 above 50 above Large Table 2 Project size based on no of requirements. Table 2 can signifies the need to enumerate each requirement, moreover each requirement will produce a use case and would also identify all its possible actors. Hence this can produce the effort needed to build those use cases which need to be documented in the software requirement specification document. Use cases can also be weighted to measure their complexity. So that the size can be determined and the time taken to create those use cases can be determined. No of Processing Points No of Actors No of > Use case Time taken to develop No of Person 1-3 1-2 1-2 3 Hours 1 4-5 3-5 3-5 5 Hours 1 5 + 5 + 5 + 7 Hours 1 Table 3 Use Case Types We have categorized the use cases based upon the number of processing points. actors, and the extension use cases which emerge from that particular use case. We conducted a survey to get the opinion from experienced software engineers and project managers in different software houses. We had distributed the questionnaire which primarily contained the questions to ask about the time needed to develop different types of use case as described in the table 3. We have processed the survey data and have obtained the average time for each category of the use case. Hence we can sum up the total number of inception points and can multiply them by the number of hours required for each type of use case. Summing up the time required in hours for each type of use case can then further give us the total number of hours required to build inception points. Section 4:Design Phase Size and Effort Estimation Object design model and behavioral model are produced during the design phase. We can estimate the size of each model alone and can sum the effort to obtain the total design phase effort. We can identify the Design Points, therefore we can add the weight associated to each design point and hence can measure the size and effort of that particular design point. This gives the lower level granularity to perceive the effort and size of each possible system feature to be designed. Hence further gives us tighter grip on the project progress. Following can be the possible design points: Entity classes Boundary classes Control classes System decomposition System integration Aggregation / composition of objects Generalization / specialization of objects Object interaction Interfaces Application logic 4.1Object Design Model Size and Effort The main artifact of the Object model is class diagram. Class diagram is comprised of several entity, control and boundary classes. If Entity Relationship diagram has already been produced then the effort can be lessened as persistent object are already been identified. Further more each type of classes need to be designed very carefully as control classes depict all the processing and interaction responsibilities among the classes. Where as boundary classes are responsible for the interfacing with either other system components, users, or external system for electronic data interchange. We declare each class to be a design point. A class in the system primarily depicts a systems object which interacts with other objects in systems environment. Hence a class does not dangle into a void but have solid connections and interactions with other classes that must be very accurately and rightly designed. Therefore we can categorize the class based on the complexity of their design. A class would be difficult to design if it has many associations , aggregations, generalizations, functionalities, overloading, overriding etc. Table 4 depicts the parameters to judge the complexity ratio of any class to be designed therefore the effort would be relevant to the complexity ratio. Complexity Ratio No of Associations No of Interactions No of Methods No of Interfaces Time Required (Hours) Low None None 1-5 1 2 2 Medium Single Single 5-10 2 5 5 High Multiple Multiple 10-20 5 10 8 Table 4: class categories for design complexity Our conducted survey tells us that based upon the complexity ratio any class can take 2, 5, or 8 hours for designing. Remember that this time is for design of the class but coding can take extra effort in the coding phase. Therefore if we can obtain the total number of design points and multiply them with the hours required to get the total hours required for the entire class diagram. 4.2Behavioral Model Size and Effort Behavioral model comprises of different diagrams which depicts the state, interaction of different classes with each other and the sequence of activities performed in the system to achieve any objective or perform business function. These diagrams are sequence diagram and state transition diagrams mainly. We declare each of these diagrams to be the design point as it is very essential to trace the possible states of the system so that a good design can be obtained. Whereas the sequence diagrams is the most sophisticated diagram that shows the complete step by step functionality and participating classes. But if the functionality of the existing system has been well understood then creation of sequence diagrams become easier. Our surveyed data reveals the facts that each of these diagrams can be different in complexity level i.e. low, medium, high. Parameters involved for determining the complexity level are summarized in table 5 below. Complexity Ratio State Chart No of States No of Transitions / Events No of Activity of State No of Actions associated with states Time Required (Hours) 1-5 1-5 1-5 1-5 3 5-10 5-7 5-7 5-7 5 10-15 7-10 7-10 7-10 8 Sequence Diagram NO of Classes No of Actors No of Events No of Control, boundary Entity Objects Time Required (Hours) 1-5 1-5 1-5 1-5 3 5-10 5-7 5-7 5-7 5 10-15 7-10 7-10 7-10 8 Table 5 Complexity parameters for behavioral model diagrams We perceive each of such diagrams as design point and can sum up the total number of hours required for each to obtain the total size and effort estimate to develop behavioral model. 4.3Data Model Size and Effort Mainly an objective is set to achieve an Entity Relationship diagram to depict the over all database design for the entire software system. E-R diagram itself involves several steps to be carried out. The size of database model itself may relate to the type of software project. Embedded software may not be using any large data base but may work using few files available in the read only memory. Whereas organic and semi detached software projects may require the data to be accessed from large databases. Complexity further increases when database has to be distributed. For the time being we do not discuss about distributed databases and leave it for our future work. Therefore we aim to estimate the size of conventional database to be built. The following table 4 summarizes the parameters that would affect the size of the database. Complexity Ratio No of Entities No of Relationships No of Aggregations Normalization Degree Query Joins Low 10-20 5-10 1-5 1-3 10-15 Medium 20-35 10-20 5-10 1-3 15-25 High 35-50 20-40 10-20 1-5 25-50 Table 6: Complexity parameters and Ratio to develop E-R Model The larger the number of entities to be designed, larger the database size increases. It is time consuming task to identify the persistent objects (i.e. entities) in the system. Then to design its attribute set. Different types of attributes i.e. composite, derived and multi-valued attributes are difficult to design and to decide that which entity would be the best suitable place for any particular attribute. Based upon the complexity ratio we had conducted a survey to know that how much time and personnel is required to build the E-R model. We have analyzed the data and got the average time and no of personnel required to develop E-R model. Complexity Ratio Days Required Personnel Required Low 7 10 1 2 Medium 10 25 1 3 High 25 40 1 5 Table 7: Required Effort for E-R model We have considered the flexibility range in the commencement of the activities as well, therefore have concluded the time and personnel requirement in to range of lower and upper limit. Section 5.Coding phase Size and Effort estimate Much work has been done to focus at the code phase effort and size estimation. Mainly Constructive Cost Model and Use case Point method strive hard to achieve this objective. But still there is room for the refinement. But as our main objective was to talk about the other phases e